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Ridda Wars   ( Wars of Apostasy )  were the series of campaigns launched by the  Rashidun Caliph Abu Bakr (R.A) soon after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in 632 AD. These wars were fought against false prophets and other apostates who refused to pay Zakat or reject the authority of the Caliphate. The Ridda Wars re-established the rule of the Caliphate over the entire Arabian Peninsula. Additionally, they proved to be a prelude for later conquests of Persia, the Byzantine Levant (Bilad al-Sham), and Egypt. Causes of Ridda Wars Tribal Society Most of the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula gradually recognized the authority of Muhammad (PBUH) and accepted Islam after the Muslim conquest of Makkah. But soon after the death of the Prophet (PBUH), several of these tribes rejected the centralized government. They referred to their agreement with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as a tribal agreement between two tribal chiefs and deemed it null and void after his death. The Eme...

The Battle of Hunain (known as Ghazwa Hunayn in Arabic) was fought in 8 AH (630 AD), soon after the conquest of Makkah. Despite initial losses and panic, the battle ended with a decisive victory for Muslims. The battle was significant because it was one of the last battles commanded by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). The battle is also mentioned by its name in the Holy Quran. Background Muslims conquered Makkah in 630 after remaining in Madinah for 8 years. This resulted in the end of hostilities between Muslims and all the clans of the Quraysh tribe, most of whom had now embraced Islam. This alarmed other tribes in Arabia, who considered the unity of Quraysh under the leadership of Muhammad (PBUH) against their interests. The tribes of Hawazin and Thaqif were already antagonists to Quraysh. They were located in Taif and nearby areas, just a few kilometers away from Makkah. Hawazin and their allied tribes planned to invade Makkah even before the arrival of Muslims from Madinah. Their...

The Battle of Ain Jalut (also spelled as Ayn Jalut) was a decisive battle between Muslim Mamluks and Mongols. It is regarded as the battle that initiated the decline of the Mongol Empire. The Battle, fought in 1260 at Nazareth (now in Israel), permanently halted the advances of Mongols in the Middle East and North Africa. Background Genghis Khan united various Mongolian tribes at the beginning of the 13 th Century. The unity and discipline converted these barbaric tribes into one of the world’s most formidable forces. They spread to all sides of Mongolia by crushing opponents and mercilessly killing civilians. Along with Russians, Chinese, and Europeans, Muslims also suffered badly at the hands of Mongols. In 1258, Mongols captured and destroyed Baghdad, which effectively ended the Abbasid Caliphate. Later in 1259, they took over Damascus and Aleppo from Ayyubids. Now, Mongols were in pursuit of the Holy Land. Crusades were also underway at that time. The invaders also had a few...

The Brusilov Offensive (June - September 1916) was a major Russian operation against the Central powers during World War 1. It is named after Russian general Aleksey Brusilov, the mastermind behind this impressive military action. This offensive relieved the besieged French forces on the Western Front and Italy at the Isonzo Front. However, a large number of Russian casualties (nearly 1 million) made it impossible for them to wage such a large-scale offensive in future. It is known as the largest Russian operation during WW1 and one of the most lethal offensives in world history. Background In February 1916, Germany besieged the French city of Verdun. During this difficult time, France requested its allies, Russia and Britain, to open new fronts to disengage Germany from Verdun. Additionally, Italy was also facing pressure from Austria-Hungary at the strategic Isonzo Front. Russia initially responded with an offensive at Lake Naroch (March 1916) that failed miserably. After thi...

During the era of the Rashidun Caliphate, Muslim armies fought simultaneously against two superpowers of the time, the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire. These warriors defeated both adversaries and expanded their rule from today’s Iran in the east to Libya in the west and Turkey in the north. During these campaigns against the superpowers of the time, Muslim forces remained victorious in almost every major battle. It is astonishing for many people how a newly formed state achieved these successes in such a short period. It happened even though the Persian and Byzantine empires got assistance from their Arabian vassal tribes and even cooperated against Muslims on some occasions (e.g. the Battle of Firaz near the Iraq-Syria border). Reasons for Early Muslim Conquests Following are some important reasons that made the Early Muslim conquests possible. New Religion The most important factor that enabled the transformation of the people of Arabia from Bedouins to a superpowe...

Amr Bin al-As (or   Amr ibn al-As ) was a companion of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), who is particularly known for his   conquest of Egypt   during the caliphate of   Umar bin Khattab (RA).   After the martyrdom of the third Caliph   Usman (RA),   Amr sided with   Muawiya bin Abi Sufyan (RA)   and became his right-hand man. He was a great political and military figure who played a crucial role during earlier Muslim conquests and later in the survival and rise of the first Ummayad caliph Muawiya.  Early Life Amr bin al-As (RA) was born in Makkah in the   Banu Sahm  clan of  the Quraysh   tribe around 585 AD. In his youth, he was a trader who visited different trading routes in various parts of Asia and the Middle East, including   Egypt.   This experience greatly helped him in his later expeditions as a Muslim Commander. In the early days of Islam, he was an opponent of Islam like most of the people of ...

Aurangzeb Alamgir was the last great Mughal Emperor of India. He was one of the few rulers who ruled over almost the entire Indian subcontinent. But his path toward kingship wasn’t straightforward. Emperor Shahjehan, his father and the 5 th Mughal Emperor, had chosen his eldest son, Dara Shikoh, to replace him as emperor after his death. Aurangzeb had to fight against Dara before claiming the throne of the Mughal Empire. A major battle fought between the two brothers was the Battle of Samugarh in 1658. Victory in this battle resulted in the coronation of Aurangzeb. Background The combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh (his younger brother) had already defeated Dara Shakoh in a smaller Battle of Dharmat. The two militaries decided to engage once again at Samugarh, 10 km east of Agra. Dara Shikoh had a larger and more powerful military, but Aurangzeb got the advantage of an experienced and battle-hardened army. The Battle The battle of Samugarh started on 29 th May 1658 w...