Islamic History - From 7TH To 19TH Century

Islam is currently the second largest and the fastest growing religion in the world [1]. However, it started modestly and could only convince a limited number of people in its birthplace in the early decades. Earlier Muslims faced severe opposition and hardships before overpowering their opponents.  

After its beginning in the 7th Century up to the 19th Century, Islam spread rapidly across continents thanks to military conquests and missionary work. During this period, it gave rise to powerful empires, and experienced both periods of unity and deep fragmentation. Below is an overview of the most significant events and caliphates that shaped Islamic civilization.

Arabia before Islam

Before the advent of Islam, most people in the Arabian peninsula, especially Hejaz, were polytheists. They were worshippers of various idols, and there were 360 idols in the Kaaba, a worship place in Makkah built by past prophets for the worship of Allah Almighty alone. The Arab tribe of Quraysh, based in Makkah, were the custodians of Kaaba. They were from the lineage of Prophet Ismail (PBUH), and Muhammad (PBUH) also belonged to the Quraysh tribe. 

There were 360 idols in Kaaba before Islam

Arrival of Islam

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was born in Makkah in 570 CE, but lost both his parents by the age of six. Later, he was brought up by his grandfather (Abdul Mutalib) and uncle Abu Talib. In his early years, Muhammad (PBUH) was known for his piety, truthfulness, and trustworthiness. 

At the age of 40 in 610 AD, Muhammad (PBUH) received his first revelation of the Holy Qur’an. He soon started preaching monotheism and good deeds to his relatives and other people of his tribe. He forbade them from their evil practices of bloodshed, looting, immorality, alcohol drinking, gambling, female infanticide, usury, etc. However, most Makkans rejected his teachings and started confronting him and the limited number of his followers. 

In 615 CE, Muhammad (PBUH) allowed some of his companions to migrate to Abyssinia (modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia). These Muslims migrated in two phases and remained there for some time with peace. Later, they returned to Medina after the Muslim migration to Madinah. 

Migration to Medina

After more than ten years of the revelation of the Qur’an, the people of Makkah remained stubborn. Only a few people converted to Islam who suffered the tyranny of the people of Makkah. In these circumstances, few people from Yathrib (now Madinah) accepted Islam during the Hajj of 620 AD. Later in 622 AD, they invited Muhammad (PBUH) and his companions to Yathrib as many people of their main tribes (Aws and Khazraj) had also accepted Islam.

Muhammad (PBUH) decided to migrate to Yathrib due to his disappointment from the people of Makkah. After His (PBUH) permission, Muslims started migrating to Yathrib in different phases to keep it secret from Quraysh. In June 622 AD, Muhammad (PBUH) also migrated to Yathrib with his companion Abu Bakr (RA). The polytheists tried hard to capture them but they reached Yathrib after about a month of traveling. The city is 320 km north of Makkah. After Muhammad’s (PBUH) arrival, the city was named Madinat-un-Nabi (city of the prophet). 

Islamic Society in Medina

As many people of Medina had already accepted Islam, Islamic society started in Madinah. Muhammad (PBUH) was accepted as a political leader of Medina by not only the Muslim Arab tribes of Aus and Khazraj but also by the Jews of Medina through the Charter of Medina. In Makkah, most of the verses of the Holy Qur’an discussed basic teachings, including faith and individual good and bad deeds. But in Medina, many verses of the Qur’an were about social affairs, such as political issues, economic issues, judicial matters, etc.

Major Events in Medina

Quresh became unhappy at the formation of an Islamic society in Medina. They believed it would create problems for them in the future. Therefore they invaded Muslims three times in five years after migration.

• In 2 AH, Muslims defeated pagans in the Battle of Badr. The Muslims numbered only 313, while the Quraysh numbered around 1000. The Muslims’ true faith in Islam, the leadership of the prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and the arrogance of the Quraysh turned the battle in their favor.
• In 3 AH, Muslims had to suffer a big loss in the Battle of Uhad due to their indiscipline attitude. However, Quresh failed to uproot Muslims.
• In 5 AH, Muhammad (PBUH) used an Iranian trench technique to save Medina from a united invasion of Quraysh and other tribes in the Battle of Trench. 
• In 6 AH (March 628 CE), Muslims and Quraysh signed an agreement “Treaty of Hudaybiyya” to end hostilities for the next ten years. They also decided to peacefully resolve other issues, such as conversions, pilgrimage to Ka’aba, and allied tribes.
• In 7 AH (628 CE), Muslims decisively defeated Jewish tribes in the Battle of Khayber. After his victory, Muhammad (PBUH) allowed Jews to live peacefully in exchange for half of their annual harvest. 

Conquest of Makkah

In Ramadan of 8 AH, Muslims invaded and captured Makkah without much bloodshed when Quraysh breached the terms of the ‘treaty of Hudaybiyya’. Most of the people of Quraysh, including their chief Abu Sufiyan, accepted Islam. Muhammad (PBUH) purified the Kaaba from idols and it became a place for worship of one God (Allah) again.

In 9 AH, Muslims fought two battles: the Battle of Hunayn and the Battle of Tabuk. In 10 AH, Muhammad (PBUH) performed his first and only Hajj pilgrimage, during which he gave his famous sermon, the ‘Farewell Sermon’. Muhammad (PBUH) died in Rabi-ul-Awal 11 AH. 

Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 CE)

After the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), four caliphs governed the Islamic State for almost 30 years. They are known as ‘Rashidun (rightly guided) Caliphs’. 

Abu Bakr (RA):

After the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), Abu Bakr (RA) became the first caliph of Muslims. At the beginning of his reign, he faced many problems from liar prophets and several tribes that refused to pay Zakat (a compulsory religious tax). Abu Bakr (RA) remained steadfast and defeated these rebels in the Ridda Wars.

After consolidating his power, Abu Bakr (RA) sent expeditions against the Persian and Byzantine empires. The Muslim Army conquered parts of the Iraqi province of Persia and also defeated Roman Christians in a few initial battles in the Levant (Al-Sham).

The reign of Abu Bakr (RA) lasted only two years (632-634 AD). Despite that, he consolidated the Islamic Caliphate, and also laid the foundation for the future conquest of Persia and Levant. Abu Bakr (RA) died in 634 AD.

Umar bin Khattab (RA)

Before his death, Abu Bakr (RA) had appointed Umar (RA) as his successor, who became the second caliph of the Islamic state. During his reign, Umar expanded the Islamic Caliphate to far-flung areas. He is also known for introducing social reforms and implementing strict accountability.

Umar (RA) completed the victories against Sassanian Persia, resulting in the fall of the Persian Empire.  During his rule, Muslim armies also conquered Levant and Egypt after defeating the Byzantine forces in several battles.

Caliph Umar (RA) ruled for ten years (634-644 CE). He was martyred by a non-Muslim Persian slave on 26^th Zulhijjah 23 AH (644 CE).

Usman bin Affan (RA)

Usman bin Affan (RA) became the third caliph of the Islamic Caliphate after the martyrdom of Umar (RA). He was elected by the committee of six persons, made by Umar (RA) during his last days.

Caliph Usman initially crushed the rebellions in former Persian and Roman provinces. After consolidating his power, Usman (RA) conquered many areas of North Africa, modern-day Afghanistan, and parts of Central Asia.  Usman (RA) also established the Muslim Navy, which captured the islands of Crete, Rhodes, and part of Sicily from the Byzantine Navy.

Usman (RA) ruled for 12 years (644-656 CE). During the second half of his reign, People from Iraq and Egypt staged a revolt after accusing him of nepotism. Usman failed to control this revolt and it resulted in his martyrdom on 18^th Zulhijjah 35 AH (656 CE). 

Ali bin Abu Talib (RA)

Ali (RA) was the fourth and last caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. His reign was marked by internal conflicts and civil wars. First, he had to fight against Ayesha (RA) in the Battle of Jamal (camel) and later against Muawiya (RA) in the Battle of Siffin. Both these battles took place for the revenge of Usman (RA). It was thought that the assassins of Usman had taken an oath on Ali’s hand, and were under his protection.

After the Battle of Siffin, Ali fought against Kharijites in the Battle of Nahrawan (659 AD). Muawiya took advantage of that encounter and his commander Amr bin al-As (RA) captured Egypt. This divided the Islamic Caliphate into eastern and western parts. A Kharijite martyred Ali on 21^st Ramadhan 40 AH, which ended his chaotic rule (656-661 CE).

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE)

 Beginning of the Umayyad Caliphate

Muawiya bin Abu Sufyan (RA) signed a treaty with Ali's elder son Hassan (RA), which ended the First Fitna (civil war) and united the caliphate. Thus, Muawiya became the first Umayyad caliph whose reign started in 661 CE and lasted till his death in 680 CE. He immediately shifted the capital of the caliphate from Kufa (Iraq) to his stronghold Damascus (Syria).

Muawiya stabilized his caliphate after ending the kharijite rebellion in 43 AH. He then focused his attention on the Byzantine Empire. Under his rule, Muslims attempted for the first time to conquer the Byzantine capital Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). Though, it failed due to better defensive measures by the Romans and their secretive weapon, the Greek Fire. However, he captured some Mediterranean islands, North Africa, and Khorasan. 

Second Fitna

Muawiya had appointed Yazeed bin Muawiya, his eldest son, as the new caliph before his death. However, Hussain bin Ali (RA) and Abdullah bin Zubayr (RA) rejected this decision. Due to differences over his appointment, the Second Islamic Civil War (Second Fitna) started between three rivals. 

Battle of Karbala resulted in the martyrdom of Hussain (RA) in 61 AH (680 CE). However, this event started a new division between Muslims. Yazid could not defeat Abdullah bin Zubair due to his sudden death in 683 CE.

Reestablishing the Umayyad Caliphate

After Yazed's death in 683 AD, his son Muawiya bin Yazed became ruler, but he died just six months later. After his death, a three-sided conflict started between Abdullah bin Zubayr (RA) (supported by the people of Hejaz), the Umayyads (led by Marwan bin Al-Hakam and his son Abdul Malik bin Marwan), and Mukhtar Thaqafi (supported the revenge of Hussain). 

The three sides fought each other for control of different regions. In the end, the Umayyads defeated the other two sides and took control of the entire caliphate. Consequently, Abdul Malik became the sole ruler of the Islamic world who restored the Umayyad dynasty. He declared Arabic the sole official language, introduced an independent Islamic currency, and built the Dome of the Rock. 

Conquests of Waled bin Abdul Malik

Waled bin Abdul Malik was the eldest son of Abdul Malik bin Marwan. He became the ruler of the Caliphate after the death of his father in 705 CE. His reign (705-715 AD) is known as the golden period of unified Islamic Empire in terms of the conquests. His great military commanders extended the Islamic Caliphate in three fronts. They captured Al-Andulus (Spain & Portugal) in the west, Sindh and Multan (in today’s Pakistan) to the south, and Mawarunnahr (most of Central Asia) to the east. Walid died in 715 AD.

Umar bin Abdul Aziz - The Pious Caliph

Umar bin Abdul Aziz was as one of the most pious rulers of the Umayyad dynasty. He introduced several social and administrative reforms during his short reign (717-720 AD). Some of the most popular reforms included returning all unjustly acquired royal properties, strictly banning alcohol and public nudity, and eradicating biases between Arab and non-Arab. Due to these reforms and piety, he is also known by few as the ‘fifth rightly-guided caliph.’

Decline and Fall of the Umayyad Caliphate

Hisham bin Abdul Malik, the tenth Umayyad caliph, ruled for 19 years. After his death, the caliphate weakened due to internal conflicts and the costly war against Khazars. Marwan bin Muhammad, the last caliph of Umayyad dynasty, ruled for six years (744-750 CE). He was an able ruler and tried hard to consolidate the Umayyad rule. However, the Abbasids had gained much strength by that time and took advantage of this situation.

In the Battle of Zab (Jan 750), the Abbasids decisively defeated the Umayyad, resulting in the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Abbasids assassinated almost their entire Umayyad dynasty. However, a talented prince Abdul Rahman I managed to reach Al-Andulus (Iberian Peninsular). In 756 CE, he established the Emirate of Cordoba there. 

Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 AD)

The Abbasid Caliphate started after the downfall of the Umayyad dynasty in 750 AD. The dynasty belonged to Banu Hashim through Abbas bin Abdul Mutallib (RA), the uncle of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Abbasids received support from Khorasan (modern Iran, Afghanistan, etc.) and Kufa (Iraq) during their struggle for the caliphate. Therefore, they shifted their capital from Damascus (Syria) to Baghdad (Iraq), which is closer to their strongholds.

Political Fragmentation

Unlike the Umayyads, the Abbasids could not maintain the unity of the Islamic Caliphate. In 756, they lost control of Al-Andulus (Iberian peninsular) to Umayyad prince Abdul Rahman I. Later, they also gradually lost other areas to independent dynasties. However, except for the Umayyad, Fatimid, and Almohads, all the other ruling dynasties recognized their caliphate. 

Golden Age of Knowledge

The reign of the Abbasid dynasty is known as the ‘golden age of Islam’ due to their patronage to knowledge. The most prominent example is the establishment of the "House of Wisdom" in late 9th Century. Its primary purpose was to translate literary work of Greek, Persians, and Indians into Arabic. It assisted scholars and thinkers from various regions and different ideologies to collaborate. The independence and state funding enabled them to make new inventions and discoveries in various fields.

Science & Technology

• Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi developed algebra in his book “Kitabul Jabr wal  Muqabala”. 
• Ibn al-Haytham is known as the ‘father of modern optics.’ He proved that light bounces from external objects and then enter the eyes, which refuted the vice-versa Ancient Greek theory.  Ibn al-Haytham's book “Kitab al-Manazir” laid the foundation of modern physics.
• Al-Razi was the first person to distinguish measles from smallpox. His medical text, "Kitab al-Mansuri," shaped the Islamic and European medical practices for centuries. 
• Al-Battani corrected the measurement of the precession of the axis of Earth. 

Prominent Political Figures

Notable rulers of the Abbasid dynasty include Abu Ja’far Mansur, al-Mahdi, Haroon al-Rashed, Mamun bin Haroon, Mu’tasim bin Haroon, and Mutawakkil bin Mu’tasim. Other influential political figures of the era were Abu Muslim Khorasani and the family of Barmakids. They played a major role in shaping politics of the Abbasid Caliphate.

End of Dynasty

At the beginning of their rule, Abbasids were much dependent on Khorasan. However, later they chose the newly-converted Muslim Turks for their survival and gave them several important military positions. However, the Turks proved king-makers, which further weakened the caliphate. 

The Mongols became a superpower in the 13^th Century. In a short period, they conquered all areas around Mongolia including China, Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. With assistance from Persia and some Christian kingdoms, the Mongols under Hulagu Khan managed the Siege of Baghdad in 1258. In February 1258, they defeated the forces securing Baghdad, assassinated the last Abbasid king, and plundered the whole city of Baghdad. They killed numerous civilians and also destroyed the great library of Baghdad including thousands of precious books. [2]

Later, the remaining members of the Abbasid dynasty fled to Egypt, where they stayed under the protection of the Mamluks. The royal family remained there until 1517 when Ottoman ruler Salim I conquered Egypt.

Fatimid Empire

After the Emirate of Cordoba, the Fatimid Empire was the second Muslim dynasty to breakaway from the Abbasid Caliphate. Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi, an Ismaili Shi'a imam, founded the Fatimid Empire in 909 in Ifriqiya (Algeria and Tunisia). After capturing Egypt in 969 CE, the Fatimid founded their new capital, Cairo, in 973. Their rule gradually spread to other parts of North Africa and West Asia.  

Al-Azhar Mosque

The Fatimid founded the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo in 970 CE. The primary purpose of this mosque was to propagate the Ismaili Shia doctrine. However, it became a center for traditional Sunni religious teachings after the end of the Fatimid rule. Al-Azhar Mosque is still regarded as a respected institute for religious education, Arabic grammar, philosophy, and contemporary higher education in the Muslim world. 

Opposition to the Abbasid Caliphate

The Fatimid Empire is one of a few ruling dynasties that outrightly rejected the authority of the Abbasid Caliphate. A major reason behind this opposition was its Ismaili Shia doctrine. Therefore, the Fatimids made efforts to replace the sunni Abbasid Caliphate from the one dominated by Shia Ismaili imams. They tried to achieve this purpose by using military power, missionaries, and agents. These efforts continued until the decline of the Fatimid Empire in the 12th Century. 

Decline and Fall

At its zenith, the Fatimid Empire ruled over North Africa, Sicily, the Levant, Hejaz (including Makkah and Madina), and Yemen. However, this situation couldn't continued for long due to ideological and political reasons. Despite their efforts, the majority of the Muslim population rejected Ismaili doctrine, while they faced military pressure from Seljuq Empire, the Byzantines, and Crusaders. 

However, the biggest threat was the internal strife that worsened the situation. Hassan-e Sabbah, an influntial missionary, parted ways from the Fatimid Empire in 1094. Later, Ismailis in Yemen separated in 1130 due to differences. In 1171, Saladin abolished the Empire and founded the Ayyubid Dynasty. 

Ottoman Empire

A Turkish lord Osman Khan founded the Ottoman Dynasty in 1299. Before that, the Seljuk Turks had lost their power in Anatolia region due to the invasions of Mongols in the 13^th Century. The rule of Ottomans started from a small area in northwestern Anatolia and expanded in later centuries through successful invasions in neighboring lands. 

Rise of the Ottoman Empire

• In 1354, most Greek inhabitants of Gallipoli left the peninsular after a strong earthquake. The Ottomans took advantage of this situation and built a strong military base in the region. It was the first Ottoman foothold in Europe, which paved the way for their later advances in the Balkans.
• In 1389, the Ottomans decisively defeated a Balkan coalition in the Battle of Kosovo. This ended the Serbian power in the Balkans and they became an Ottoman vassal state. 
• In 1396, the Ottomans defeated the combined forces of Crusaders in the Battle of Nicopolis in modern day Bulgaria. This battle tightened the grip of Ottomans in the Balkans and weakened the Christian coalition. 
• In 1444, Ottomans again defeated the combined Christine armies at the Battle of Varna in present day Bulgaria. It was the last Crusade that formed to halt Ottomans expansion in the Balkans.
• In 1448, Ottomans gained another major success in the Second Battle of Kosovo by defeating forces of Christian Kingdoms of Hungary, Croatia and Wallachia. Victory in this battle also removed all hurdles from the Ottomans to invade Constantinople.
• In 1453, Ottomans captured Constantinople after a 53-day land and naval siege. It resulted in the Fall of the Byzantine Empire and laid the foundation of the Ottoman Empire.
• After the Fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire expanded its rule in the Balkans and Central Europe. During this process, it captured Serbia (1459), Greece (1461), Bosnia (1463), Albania (1479), Herzegovina (1482), and Hungary (1526). The Ottomans failed to proceed further in Central Europe after their failed first siege of Vienna in 1529. 
• The Ottomans initiated their campaigns eastwards during the 16th Century. After defeating Mamluks in multiple battles, the Ottomans captured Syria, Palestine, Hejaz and Egypt by 1517. 
• Later, the Ottoman Empire fought against the Safavid Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries, mainly for the control of Iraq. The Ottomans finally conquered Iraq in 1639. 
• These victories make the Ottoman Empire as one of the largest empires occupying areas in Anatolia, eastern & central Europe, Middle East and North Africa.

Decline and Fall

• The decline of Ottoman Empire started in 1683 after the Battle of Vienna. In the battle, the Ottomans lost decisively against the Habsburg Monarchy and their European allies. 
• Soon after the Battle of Vienna, various European powers joined to form the Holy League. The Great Turkish War between the Ottoman Empire and Holy League ended in 1699 with Ottoman defeat. Consequently, the Ottomans surrendered  Hungary and several other European areas to members of the Holy League.
• The Ottomans also suffered from internal strife. Rise of nationalism, Janissaries' opposition to modernization, and the Young Turk Revolution weakened the empire miserably. All these factors played a major role in its decline. 
• During World War I, the Ottoman Empire sided with the German Empire in an effort to regain its lost territories. However, the defeat of the German-led Central Powers resulted in the fall of the Ottoman Empire and establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1922. 

Safavid Dynasty

Ismail I founded the Safavid Dynasty in 1501 when he captured Tabriz and later the entire modern-day Iran. At that time, Iran had a mixed population of various religious sects, including Sunni Muslims and Zaydi Shia. Safavids belonged to the Twelver Shia sect and they forcefully converted the whole Iranian population to their religion through assassination, imprisonment, and exile. The same tactics were applied in other areas that they captured, particularly in Azerbaijan and Iraq. This forced the Ottomans to wage wars against them.

Ottoman-Safavid Wars

In 1514, Ottomans defeated Safavids in the Battle of Chaldiran and thus gained permanent control over eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq. Both sides signed the Treaty of Amasya after the Ottoman-Safavid War (1532-55). The treaty handed over the control of Iraq, Western Armenia, and Kurdistan to the Ottomans, while the Safavids took control of Tabriz. 

During Abbas I's reign (1588-1629), the Safavids regained control of Iraq and the South Caucasus region. The Safavid Empire also defeated the Mughals and the Portuguese during his reign. However, the Ottomans regained control of Iraq in 1638 CE.

Decline and Fall

The decline of the Saffavid Empire started after the death of Abbas I in 1629 due to his weak successors, continuous warfare, and financial crisis. In 1722, the Safavid Dynasty fell at the hands of the Hotak Dynasty of Afghanistan after a six-month long siege of Isfahan.

Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire was the last and strongest Muslim dynasty in the Indian subcontinent. In April 1526, Babur established the Mughal Empire in India after defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat. Later Babur consolidated his power by defeating Hindu ruler Rana Sanga in 1527. Babur’s son Humayun lost against a Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, in 1540 but later regained the Empire in 1555 AD. 

Rise and Peak of the Mughal Empire

Humayun’s son Akbar was the most competent ruler of the Mughal Empire. He conquered many areas of the subcontinent through military campaigns and his policy of matrimonial alliances with Rajput Hindu princesses. He also introduced a new religion, Din-e-Ilahi, but only with minor success. 

Aurangzeb was the sixth Mughal ruler. During his reign (1658-1707 AD), the Mughal Empire reached its zenith. He captured almost the entire Indian Subcontinent through victories in the south. 

Decline and Fall

After Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire started to crumble. Aurangzeb's successors were incompetent and it was difficult for them to take full control of the vast empire. As a result, Hindu Marathas established their rule over most of central India. Additionally, many small dynasties emerged in the east and south of the Subcontinent, weakening the rule of Mughals miserably. 

Foreign powers, such as the British and Portuguese, also took advantage of the situation and annexed many areas. The British Empire conquered the subcontinent after their victory in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. They exiled the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, to Burma.

Conclusion

The Islamic world experienced extraordinary transformations from its beginning in the 7th Century to the 19th Century. It remained united and expanded during the leadership of the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs. The Abbasid Caliphate promoted learning and knowledge, resulted in the "Islamic Golden Age". The Muslim world faced Crusades and the Mongol invasion during the 12th and 13th centuries but managed to withstand these military escalations. to the imperial grandeur of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals, The Islamic civilization shaped global history through knowledge, trade, and culture that left a lasting legacy far beyond the Islamic world itself.