Ancient Rome - From Rise to Divide

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Ancient Rome was one of the earliest civilizations in Europe, centered around the Italian Peninsula. It rose from a small settlement along the Tiber River, and grew into one of history’s most powerful empires within a few centuries. However, the significance of the Roman Empire diminished after its division into two parts in the 4th Century AD.

Alongside Ancient Greece, the civilization of Ancient Rome shaped the law, government, architecture, language, and culture in ways still felt today. These two ancient civilizations largely influenced the views of the Renaissance in Europe during the 14th Century.

There are four eras of this ancient civilization: the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire, and the division of the Roman Empire.

Roman Kingdom

According to legend, twin brothers Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome in 753 BCE. Later, Romulus became the first king of the Roman Kingdom. Seven monarchs of this kingdom ruled for more than 200 years before its replacement by the Roman Republic in 509 BC. Due to the absence of any written record or other evidence, there is no certainty about the events and personalities of that period. However, modern historians believe there was a kingdom in Rome, later replaced by the Republic. 

Roman Republic

The era of Roman Republic started around 509 BC after the fall of the Roman Kingdom. The period is known for its system of checks and balances, featuring a constitution, the Senate, assemblies, and elected magistrates. The extension of Roman rule initially started during this period.

The Roman Republic started its expansion of the Italian peninsula in 338 BC after defeating the Latin  League to capture central Italy. By 272 BC, the Republic had taken full control of Italy with victories against Samnites, Greeks, and their allies in grueling wars. Roman conquest of Italy completed in 264 BC with their victory in the Roman-Etruscan Wars. 

Punic Wars

Soon After the conquest of Italy, Romans initiated Punic Wars against Carthaginians in 246 BC. Carthage had its capital in modern-day Tunisia, while its rule was spread to the Mediterranean Sea, including most of Sicily, southern Iberia, North Africa, Sardinia, and several smaller islands. 

Success in the First Punic War enabled Romans to capture Sicily. The Second Punic War (218-201 BC) is known as the Hannibalic War due to the heroics of the great Carthaginian general Hannibal. However, Rome remained victorious despite initial setbacks and captured Carthaginian Iberia. Rome later captured Carthage after the Third Punic War, resulting in its fall. These victories made Rome a Mediterranean superpower and handed over control to key trade routes. 

Wars Against Gauls

In the 4th Century, the Republic faced a threat from powerful Celtic tribes of Gaul (central Europe and adjacent areas) as they expanded their rule. Around 390 BC, the two powers first engaged in the Battle of Allia, where the Gauls remained victorious, resulting in the First Sack of Rome. However, the Roman Republic soon recovered and after initial defeats, they struck back and won the later battles. The Battle of Mutina (193 BC) was the last battle between the two nations. Victory in this battle allowed Rome to regain northern parts of the Italian peninsula. 

Rome initiated counterattack against Gauls in 125 BC and captured the southern parts of Gaul in 121 BC. Famous Roman leader Julius Caesar fought the final Gallic Wars (58-50 BC) against numerous Gallic tribes. His victory paved the way to conquer the whole of Gaul (modern-day Belgium, Switzerland,  and France). 

Differences between Caesar and Senate resulted in the Great Roman Civil War (49-45 BC), also known as Caesar's Civil War. Caesar became victorious in the war but was assassinated in 44 BC by a group of senators. This assassination marks the end of the Roman Republic and gaveEmpire birth to the Roman Empire. 

Roman Empire

After Caesar’s murder, his supporters Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius), Octavius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus jointly ruled the Roman Republic for ten years (43-33 BC). After the legal formation of their government, they killed all the senators who allegedly supported the assassination of Caesar. In October 42 BC, the new rulers defeated and killed the assassins of Caesar in the Battle of Philippi. Differences emerged between Octavian and Antony after 34 BC due to Antony’s marriage to the famous Egyptian pharaoh Cleopatra VII and his extra favor to her. In 31 BC, Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium. Cleopatra and Antony committed suicide, and Octavian became the sole ruler of the Roman Republic. In 27 BC, Octavian adopted the name of Augustus (majestic), and this event is marked as the beginning of the Roman Empire. 

Pax Romana (27 BC to 180 AD)

Beginning of the Roman Empire also opened the golden period for Rome, known as Pax Romana. This period, continued from 27 BC to 180 AD, is known for vast expansion, internal peace and stability, and economic prosperity. Rome extended to its zenith by 117 AD, at the death of  Emperor Trajan. At that time, the empire controlled large parts of Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa, comprising nearly 33% of the world population. 

The presence of strong emperors eradicated civil wars and internal struggles and ensured economic prosperity and legal uniformity. Long-distance trade flourished due to secure road networks which assisted trade, troops movement, and communication. This period ended in 180 AD with the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. 

Decline of the Roman Empire (180 to 235 CE)

The empire entered an era of decline with the coronation of Commodus, Aurelius' incompetent son. His
dictatorial and erratic rule ended with his assassination in 192 AD. Soon after his death, struggle in Roman Empire started with a civil war in 193 AD. The year is known as the Year of Five Emperors because five persons claimed the throne of Roman Empire. Septimius Severus remained victorious and founded the Severus dynasty. 

The Severan dynasty was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire. During this era, the central authority collapsed miserably as emperors focused on appeasing military to remain in power. The dynasty started in 193 AD with the empowerment of Septimus Severus and concluded with the death of the emperor Alexander Severus in 235 AD. During his reign, the military became indiscipline and performed poorly against the Sassanid Empire and Germanic tribes. These factors lead to his assassination and initiated a period of severe crisis.

Crisis of the Third Century (235 to 284 CE)

After the death of Alexander, a crisis emerged in the Roman Empire, known as the Crisis of the Third Century. During that period, the Roman Empire faced invasions, internal conflicts, political instability, and poor economic conditions. In these 50 years, Rome saw 20 emperors due to internal instability. Comparatively, only 27 emperors ruled during the previous 260 years (27 BC to 235 CE).

Civil wars and political instability split Rome into Gallic Empire (260 AD) in the western and Palmyrene Empire (270 CE) in the eastern region. However, Emperor Aurelion (270 to 275 CE) retook Palmyrene Empire in 272 CE and the Gallic Empire in 274 CE. On most occasions, emperors were installed, removed, or assassinated by undisciplined and uncontrolled Roman military. 

Reforms by Diocletian

Diocletian became emperor in 284 AD and ruled till 305 AD. His reign is known as the last effort to restore the glory of the Roman Empire. He took necessary steps to overcome the administrative, economic, and military weaknesses of the empire. 

Diocletian's most significant reform was division of the empire into two parts, an eastern and western part. Each part was ruled by an Augustus (senior emperor) and a Caesar (junior emperor), a system known as Tetrarchy (rule of four). This step also laid foundation for the later division of the empire. 

He separated civil administration from military, increased effectiveness of troops, and introduced a new tax system. All these reforms improved the political, administrative, and economic situation and assisted in halting the crisis. Unlike other Roman emperor, Diocletian voluntarily stepped down in 305 CE. 

Constantine the Great

In 306 AD, Constantine took over as the emperor of the Roman Empire. After his victory in the Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy (306-324 CE), he abolished the Tetrarchy and became the sole ruler of Rome. Constantine is particularly famous for his conversion to  Christianity (312 CE) and its legalization in the Roman Empire through the Edict of Milan (313 CE). He also moved his capital to Byzantium in 330 CE and renamed it to Constantinople.

Division of the Roman Empire

The final and decisive split of the Roman Empire happened in 395 CE after the death of Theodosius the Great. He had already appointed his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, as co-rulers. In 395, both brothers became independent rulers, effectively dividing the empire permanently. 
  • The Western Roman Empire struggled with political instability, invasions from Germanic tribes (particularly Visigoths and Vandals), and economic decline. In 476 CE, an allied Germanic chieftain, Odoacer, revolted and captured Rome, marking the symbolic “fall of Rome.”
  • The Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, flourished with its capital in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul). It lasted for nearly another thousand years until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Byzantine Empire lasted longer due to its strategic location, better defense, centralized leadership, and control of trade routes.

Legacy of Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome continued to flourish for centuries. Therefore, it left a lasting impact despite its division and consequent fall. 
  • Government: Rome established the first true republic in 509 BC after overthrowing the kingdom. The concept is still present in many modern states. 
  • Law: Roman law and legal system influenced the justice system of many modern countries. A prominent example is the US legal system. [1]
  • Language: Latin, the language of Ancient Romans, is the basis of Romance languages. These include modern languages, such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. Additionally, several words in English language have Latin roots. [2]
  • Engineering and Architecture: Road networks, aqueducts, horizontal watermills, crop rotation, and Roman concrete are some of the inventions that benefitted humanity worldwide and for centuries.
  • Religion: Romans initially persecuted Christians, particularly during the reigns of Nero, Decius, and Diocletian. However, their later conversion in the 4th century allowed Christianity to unite and spread over a wide region. The process also shaped the Western civilization.

Conclusion

Ancient Rome started its journey from a small village to become one  of the greatest empires in history. Over many centuries, the Romans built strong governments, powerful armies, expansive roads, and lasting laws that influenced many parts of the world. Their achievements also helped shaping the modern society, especially the Western world. 

However, larger empires became harder to manage. Political problems, economic struggles, and invasions weakened Rome, leading to its division into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. While the Western Empire eventually fell, the Eastern Empire continued for many more centuries, keeping Roman traditions alive.

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