French Revolution - Causes, Events, and Effects

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The French Revolution is one of the most famous events in European history. It occurred from 1789 to 1799, during which a string of events altered the French political and social structure. During this revolution, a democratic system replaced the French monarchy, while liberalism and secularism eradicated the importance of religion in the affairs of the state and society. 

Causes of the French Revolution

Social Inequality (The Estates System)

The social system of France divided its population into three estates: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners). The first two estates (clergy and the nobility) enjoyed privileges with little to no taxes. They also had political influence due to an unfair voting system at the Estates General Assembly, which represented all three estates. The Third Estate, nearly 98% of the French population, bore the burden of taxation while lacking political representation.

Long and Costly Wars

The economy of France suffered miserably due to its participation in the Seven Years’ War (1754-63) and the American Revolutionary War (1775-84). Therefore, France imposed unpopular taxes on people while the deregulation of grain increased the price of bread. Due to bad harvest, the bread became scarce for the public, and the regime failed to control this situation.

Enlightenment Ideas

Philosophers like Voltaire and Rousseau made Paris the center of the Enlightenment Movement in the second half of the 18th Century. The emphasis of this movement was on reason and the rejection of religious dogmas. This philosophy influenced the people on a larger scale, especially the middle class, who were skeptical of Catholic doctrines.

Weak Monarchy

King Louis XVI was indecisive and inconsistent in his policies. He failed to take right decisions at the right time. This made it easier for demonstrators to take control of the affairs in their own hands without much opposition. His wife, Marie Antoinette, was unpopular and seen as a symbol of extravagance. Their inability to solve the crisis undermined the monarchy’s legitimacy.

Impact of the American Constitution

·     France played a major role in the independence of the USA. Therefore, there was a lot of interest among the French population in matters related to the U.S. The newly established United States of America adopted the constitution with separation of power in a government. Many French thinkers advocated this form of government in place of absolute monarchy to solve their problems. These ideas particularly influenced the wealthy middle-class.

Key Events During the French Revolution
  1. Due to the financial crisis, King Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General in May 1789 to find a solution to the problem. It was the first meeting of the Estate-General after 1614. Due to differences, the Third State (commoners) established the National Assembly on 13th June 1789. Most of the clergy and 47 members of the nobility also joined them. Consequently, the National Constituent Assembly replaced the National Assembly on 9th July 1789. In August 1789, NCA abolished feudalism in France (which deprived nobility and clergy of tax collection) and passed legislation on the Rights of Man and Citizen, giving equal rights to all the citizens of France.
  2. The first major step that initiated the revolution was the Storming of the Bastille on 14th July 1789. The commoners’ militia, the National Guards, was behind the Storming of the Bastille. This raid displayed the support and strength of the National Assembly against the monarchy. The prison Bastille, at the center of Paris, represented royal authority. 
  3. On 5th October 1789, thousands of women from Paris marched towards the Palace of Versailles (royal palace in north-central France). Its purpose was to protest against the high price of bread in Paris. These women forced the king, royal family, and the French Assembly to relocate from Versailles to Tuileries Palace in Paris. This event is known as the Women’s March on Versailles. 
    Tuileries Palace and Tuileries Garden
    Women's March on Versailles forced the king to relocate to Tuileries Palace

  4. In 1789 and 1790, the National Assembly passed several laws to reduce the power of the Church. Under these laws, the Clergy lost their authority to collect tithe (10% tax) from peasants while the land of the Church became state property. The regime dissolved all religious orders in February 1790. Later, the clergy became employees of the state following the Civil Constitution of the Clergy on 12th July 1790.  
  5. When the situation became unbearable for Louis XVI, he and the royal family decided to flee to an area near Austria. At the Fort of Montmedy, General Bouille had assured the royal family of his complete support. The royal family escaped from Tuileries Palace on the night of 20th June 1791, while wearing the clothes of their servants. On June 21, a postmaster at Varennes recognized the king and the royal family had to return to Paris, just 50 km away from their intended destination. This unsuccessful escape attempt by the royal family, known as Flight to Verennes, increased public hatred against the king and royal family.
  6. On 10th August 1792, National Guards and other revolution-supporting militias invaded the Tuileries Palace. Around 1,000 Swiss Guards and other loyalists were heavily outnumbered by over 20,000 attackers. Swiss Guards (known for their loyalty and discipline) defended the palace till the surrender by King Louis XVI. Most Swiss Guards died during the process, and the king practically became a prisoner.
  7. Between 2nd and 7th September 1792, National Guards executed around 1400 prisoners from all the prisons across Paris. This step was due to fear that these prisoners could join the invading forces of foreign nations and loyalists of the monarchy. The event is known as September Massacres.
  8. The French Constitution of 1791 replaced the absolute monarchy with a constitutional monarchy. However, this constitution could not last long, and France became a republic on 21st September 1792, after abolishing the monarchy. 
  9. Different monarchs of Europe were worried about the situation in France. Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II was the brother of French Queen Marie Antoinette. He and the Prussian King consulted with French nobles and issued a declaration to protect Louis XVI and the royal family in August 1791. In retaliation, France declared war against Austria in April 1792. After initial defeats, the French military finally remained victorious. These victories enabled the French regime to execute French emperor Louis XVI on 21st January 1793.
  10. Britain, Spain, Portugal, and several other European countries joined the anti-France alliance in 1793 after the execution of Louis XVI. This initiated the War of the First Coalition. The war ended in 1797 with a victory for France. An emerging General, Napoleon Bonaparte, became a hero for playing a role in many French victories.
  11. Vendee is the western part of France where people (mostly peasants) were religious. They openly revolted against the stance of revolution about the Roman Catholic Church. The War in the Vendee broke out in March 1793 after the passing of conscription laws by the Republican regime in February 1792. The uprising received assistance from royalist supporters and Great Britain. After initial defeats, Republicans soon uprooted the rebellion. 
  12. The revolutionaries formed the Committee of Public Safety in April 1793 to protect France from internal rebellion and foreign threats. The members of the committee had enormous powers. In July 1793, a radical member of the Jacobin Club, Maximilien Robespierre, became head of the committee. He summarily executed everyone perceived to be the enemy of the revolution, including moderate members of the revolutionaries (Girondins). Due to these atrocities, the period from September 1793 to July 1794 is called the Reign of Terror.
  13. On 24th June 1793, the National Convention accepted the constitution drafted by the Committee of Public Safety. This constitution is known as the French Constitution of 1793. The abolition of slavery, popular sovereignty, and public assistance were significant points of this constitution.
  14. Robespierre was strengthening his position in the Committee of Public Safety. This alarmed several committee members, including several moderate Jacobins, who were worried about their safety. This situation gave rise to a coup within the committee. Opposing members of the committee executed Robespierre and over 150 of his supporters with the help of National Guards and Girondists on 27th July 1794. This event, known as the Thermidorian Reaction (Thermidor was the 11th month in the French Republican Calendar), ended the Reign of Terror.
  15. On 22nd February 1795, the Convention approved the French Constitution of 1795, replacing the French Constitution of 1793. Under this constitution, the period of  The Directory started. It operated with a combined leadership of five directors. The Directory ended the Jacobin Reign of Terror, suppressed the Vendee rebellion and achieved military successes against foreign nations. However, it remained unpopular due to the financial crisis, corruption, and increase in crime rate. On 9th November 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory and established The Consulate. This event started the Napoleon era. 

Effects of the French Revolution

The effects of the French Revolution were long-lasting and expanded beyond France to Europe and other parts of the world. 

End of Absolute Monarchy in France

Before the revolution, France was an absolute monarchy. The Estate-General was there to represent the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners, but it had been practically ineffective since 1614. Its role was also more or less advisory. The French Revolution crushed the power of both these pillars of government. A democratic republic replaced the absolute monarchy, while the clergy lost all their influence and land to the revolutionary regime. They became servants of the state, and France became a secular country based on the principles of enlightenment and liberalism.

Rise of Secularism

The Roman Catholic church played a major role in strengthening French monarchy by legitimizing it on religious grounds. In return, Clergy were allowed to collect tithes (10% of the harvest) from peasants, while their land was free from taxation. Therefore, most revolutionaries had a negative view about Clergy. In different phases of the revolution, the Clergy and religion lost their influence in the government and the society as well. Revolutionary France took all land from Clergy and made them civil servants. Later reforms secularized educational institutes and allowed religious freedom. 

Global Impact

The French Revolution didn't remain limited to France but also impacted the outside world. In the beginning, neighboring European monarchies participated in the campaigns supporting the French monarchy against revolutionary France. However, soon many of these regimes recognized they can no longer maintain absolute monarchy. Therefore, it forced many of these monarchies to reduce their authority and give some rights to common people. Later, the French Republic also exported the ideas of democracy, human rights, and nationalism to its captured areas (Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy, etc.).

Reign of Terror

Initially, thinkers and philosophers in many parts of Europe favored the French Revolution. However, the large-scale killing of people (including many innocent people on mere suspicion) during the Reign of Terror forced them to change their minds. Therefore, no such aggressive revolutionary thoughts appeared in other European countries. Instead, many countries voluntarily changed their political system from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy and then democracy to prevent similar bloodshed in their countries. 

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